Materials

1a -Energy Dispersive X-ray Spectroscopy (EDXS) 
Measurement of the energy of characteristic X-rays that are produced due to electron beam – specimen interactions enables the identity of atoms present in the irradiated specimen to be identified. A relative X-ray intensity versus X-ray energy spectrum is obtained and the atomic (or weight) percentage of detectable elements in the specimen is calculated. This analytical technique is possible in SEMs and TEMs. 

1b -Atomic Number Contrast Imaging
The backscattered electron (BSE) yield as the primary beam scans across the sample surface in the SEM is affected by the average atomic mass within the specimen-beam interaction volume. Since higher atomic mass produces higher BSE yield, these areas will appear bright in relation to lower atomic mass regions. The contrast qualitatively indicates variations in local composition.

Electron Energy Loss Spectroscopy (EELS)
The EELs technique measures the electron energy lost as the electrons are transmitted through a thin sample. The chemical composition and electronic structure information is analysed.

To be added

Raman Spectroscopy
A technique providing information on the chemical structure, crystallinity, phase or molecular interaction of a sample by the scattering of light from a laser source. Samples are identified by their unique Raman scatter fingerprint produced by the scattering of the laser light as it interacts with the chemical bonds within the material. 

To be added

2a -Electron Channelling Contrast Imaging (ECCI) 
ECCI is an imaging technique in the SEM that utilises the channelling effect of electrons with respect to crystallographic lattice planes. The contrast in the images, due to variation in backscattered electron detection, is controlled by the crystallographic orientation of the lattice within each grain and hence the different levels of contrast from grain-to-grain provides an image of the microstructure in a polycrystalline material. 

2b -Electron Backscattered Diffraction (EBSD)
EBSD is an SEM technique used to quantify the crystallographic structure of materials. The orientation of the crystal volume irradiated by the electron beam is measured as the beam scans the region of interest and an orientation image (or map) of the scanned area is produced. The crystallographic and orientation information enables determination of phase distribution, grain size, boundary characterisation, texture and local strain variation. 

3a -Diffraction Contrast in the TEM
Due to the lattice distortion around the core of the dislocation, some Bragg diffraction of the electron beam occurs in a localised region around the core. Intensity is therefore directed away from the 'straight-through' beam, so dislocations appear as dark lines in bright field TEM images. The contrast can be reversed by selecting a diffracted beam for image formation. 

3b -Electron Channelling Contrast Imaging (ECCI) 
Dislocations or stacking faults close to the surface of an SEM sample can be imaged due to the highly local variation in channelling contrast associated with the deviation of crystallographic planes around the dislocation. When the primary beam travels into the sample at close to the Bragg condition, the backscattered electron (BSE) yield is low, and the contrast is dark. If a dislocation is present, the Bragg condition is changed, and the BSE yield increases (brighter contrast). 

3c -Electron Backscattered Diffraction (EBSD)
The presence of geometrically necessary dislocations (GNDs) within crystals produces lattice curvature which can be detected by orientation imaging using EBSD. Integration of the orientation changes around the perimeter of a defined loop within an EBSD map enables the weighted Burgers vector (WBV) associated with the lattice curvature to be determined. Knowledge of the Burgers vector value enables the WBV to be converted to a GND density value.